| Journal of Animal Biology & Therapeutics
Received: 06 August 2026; Revised: 11 September 2026; Accepted: 12 September 2026; Published Online: 16 September 2026.
J. Anim. Biol. Ther., 2026, 1(1), 26702 | Volume 1 Issue 1 (September 2026) | DOI: https://doi.org/10.64189/abt.26702
© The Author(s) 2026
This article is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC-BY-NC 4.0)
Nanomedicine for Human and Veterinary
Helminthiasis: Anthelmintic Delivery, Resistance, and
Host–Parasite Interactions
Harmanjot Kaur,
1
Lachhman Das Singla
2
* and Diptiman Choudhury
1,3*
1
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, 147004, India
2
Department of Veterinary Parasitology, Abhilashi University, Chail Chowk, Tehsil Chachyot, District Mandi, Himachal Pradesh,
175045, India
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061,
United States
*Email: ldsingla@gmail.com (Lachhman Das Singla); diptiman@thapar.edu (Diptiman Choudhury)
Abstract
Helminth infections remain a major global health and veterinary concern, affecting more than 1.5 billion people
worldwide and causing substantial economic losses in livestock production. The burden is greatest in tropical
and subtropical regions where inadequate sanitation, contaminated food and water, and limited healthcare
facilitate parasite transmission. Although conventional anthelmintic drugs, including benzimidazoles,
avermectins, and praziquantel, have significantly reduced the prevalence of these infections, their long-term
effectiveness is increasingly threatened by poor bioavailability, off-target effects, limited drug targets, and the
rapid emergence of anthelmintic resistance. These challenges have driven the search for innovative therapeutic
strategies. Nanomedicine has emerged as a promising approach to improving the treatment and control of
helminth infections by enhancing drug solubility, stability, and bioavailability, enabling controlled release and
targeted delivery, and potentially reducing toxicity and overcoming resistance. In addition to functioning as drug
carriers, several nanoparticle systems possess intrinsic antiparasitic activity and have demonstrated enhanced
efficacy when used alone or in combination with conventional anthelmintic drugs and phytotherapeutics. This
review summarizes the current progress in nanoparticle-based therapies for parasitic worm infections,
discusses the advantages and limitations of different nanocarrier systems, and highlights the challenges and
prospects for translating nanomedicine into effective clinical and veterinary applications.
Keywords: Nanomedicine; Parasitic worm; Anthelminthic drugs; Helminthic drug resistance; Benzimidazole; Herbal
formulations.
1. Introduction
Helminth infections are among the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases, affecting both humans and
animals worldwide and posing a major public health and veterinary challenge. These infections are caused by
parasitic worms (helminths), multicellular eukaryotic organisms that depend on their hosts for survival and
nutrition, often resulting in chronic disease and significant health impairment.
[1]
Helminth infections are
particularly common in tropical and subtropical regions and in low- and middle-income countries, where
inadequate sanitation, contaminated food and water, and limited access to healthcare facilitate parasite
transmission.
[2]
The major intestinal helminths include Ascaris spp., amphistomes, and strongyles, among
others. Infection commonly leads to nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, malnutrition, impaired
physical growth, and reduced quality of life.
[3]
In addition to these clinical manifestations, several helminths are
known to modulate the host immune system by expanding regulatory T cells (Tregs), thereby suppressing
inflammatory responses.
[4]
Greenwood first reported an association between widespread helminth exposure
and a lower prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis among African populations, suggesting that helminths may
influence the development of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.
[5]
Although these immunomodulatory
properties have attracted considerable research interest, helminth infections remain a major global health
concern. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), diarrheal diseases account for
approximately one in nine child deaths worldwide, causing nearly 2,195 deaths each day—more than malaria,
AIDS, and measles combined.
[6]
Soil-transmitted helminths alone infect more than 1.5 billion people globally,
with preschool- and school-aged children and women of reproductive age bearing the greatest disease burden.
[7]
Approximately 267 million preschool-aged children and 568 million school-aged children live in regions
where transmission remains intense, necessitating regular preventive interventions and effective treatment.
The highest prevalence occurs in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, China, and East Asia.
[7]
Beyond human
health, helminth infections also have profound economic consequences for livestock production. Fasciolosis
affects approximately 250 million sheep and 350 million cattle worldwide, placing more than 27 million people
at risk.
[8,9]
Gastrointestinal helminths reduce animal growth, fertility, feed efficiency, milk production, and
overall productivity, particularly under intensive farming conditions or in contaminated environments.
[10]
These losses are expected to become increasingly important as global meat consumption continues to rise, with
per capita consumption projected to increase substantially over the coming decades.
[11]
The severity of infection
depends on several factors, including parasite species, infective dose, host susceptibility, parasite reproductive
capacity, and host–parasite interactions.
[12]
Consequently, helminth infections may cause weight loss, reduced
fecundity, impaired growth, production losses, or go unnoticed clinically because of their chronic nature. Most
helminths possess complex life cycles involving egg, larval, and adult stages. Depending on the parasite species,
transmission occurs through ingestion of infective eggs or larvae in contaminated food, water, or fodder;
consumption of infected intermediate hosts; skin penetration; or, less commonly, vertical transmission or
arthropod vectors. Adult worms typically reside within the definitive host, whereas larval stages may develop
in the environment or within intermediate hosts before completing their life cycle (Fig. 1). Control of helminth
infections relies primarily on a limited number of anthelmintic drug classes, including benzimidazoles
(albendazole and mebendazole), macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin and other avermectins), and praziquantel.
Although these drugs have substantially reduced the burden of helminthiasis, their long-term effectiveness is
increasingly threatened by poor bioavailability, limited drug targets, repeated treatment requirements, adverse
effects, and, most importantly, the rapid emergence of anthelmintic resistance.
[13,14]
For example, monepantel,
introduced for livestock treatment in 2009, experienced documented resistance in sheep and goats in New
Zealand within only three years of its commercial release.
[15]
Such rapid development of resistance underscores
the urgent need for innovative therapeutic approaches. The currently available anthelmintic drugs, their
mechanisms of action, therapeutic applications, and major limitations are summarized in Table 1.
Nanomedicine has emerged as a promising strategy to overcome many limitations associated with conventional
anthelmintic therapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems can improve drug solubility, stability, and
bioavailability, enable controlled release and targeted delivery, and potentially reduce toxicity and delay the
emergence of drug resistance. Furthermore, several nanomaterials possess intrinsic antiparasitic activity and
have demonstrated enhanced therapeutic efficacy when used alone or in combination with conventional
anthelmintic drugs or herbal formulations. Consequently, nanotechnology represents a promising platform for
developing next-generation therapeutics against parasitic worm infections. This review summarizes recent
advances in the application of nanomedicine for the management of parasitic worm infections. We discuss
different nanoparticle-based delivery systems, their mechanisms of action, therapeutic applications in human
and veterinary helminthiasis, their advantages over conventional formulations, current limitations, and
prospects for translating these technologies into clinical and veterinary practice.
Fig. 1: Taxonomic classification of helminths. There are three main groups of helminths, i.e., Trematodes (flukes),
Cestodes (tapeworms), and Nematodes (roundworms). They are classified by their overall external shape and the
host organ they inhabit. Helminths develop through egg, larval, and adult stages. The outer covering of the helminths
is the cuticle or tegument.
Table 1: Current anthelminthic drugs and their mechanism
Name of the drug
Structure
Mechanism
Side effects
Fenbendazole
It binds to tubulin, disrupts the tubulin-
microtubule equilibrium, and inhibits
polymerization in helminths. It also induces
apoptotic cell death of porcine
trophectoderm and uterine cells following
membrane disruption. It might lead to
implantation failure in pigs during early
pregnancy.
[16,17]
Diarrhea, Loss of
appetite,
Lethargy
Piperazine
It is a selective GABA agonist that activates
and gates GABA receptors on nematode
muscle. It causes hyperpolarization of
muscle cells and nerve membranes at the
neuromuscular junction leading to parasite
immobilization by flaccid paralysis and
consequent removal by interfering with the
energy metabolism of the nematode.
[18]
Blurring vision,
clumpiness, joint
pain, skin rash,
crawling or
tingling feeling
of the skin, skin
rash, or itching.
Mebendazole
It inhibits the production of microtubules
via binding to the colchicine binding site of
β-tubulin and thereby blocking the
polymerization of tubulin dimers in the
intestinal cells of parasites. Hence, glucose
uptake gets interrupted, resulting in
immobilization and hindrance of egg
production and death of helminth.
[19]
Diarrhea,
Stomach pain,
swelling, nausea,
vomiting, loss of
appetite.
Albendazole
It binds to the tubulin dimer interface
overlapping the colchicine binding site of β-
tubulin, thereby inhibiting microtubule
polymerization and disrupting microtubule
networks.
[20]
Headache, neck
stiffness,
abnormal liver
functions,
temporary hair
loss.
Morantel
[21]
It acts as an agonist of the nAChR subtype
comprising ACR-26/ACR-27 subunits
from H.
contortus or Parascarisequorum expressed
in X. laevis oocytes. In oocyte expression
studies, morantel was seen to cause a non-
competitive voltage-sensitive open channel
block of the newly characterized A.
suum ACR-16 receptor.
[22-24]
Dyspnea,
Tachypnea,
Diarrhea,
Tremor,
Convulsions,
Ataxia.
Pyrantel
It activates L-subtype nAChR in A. suum.It
also causes an open channel block.
[24,25]
Nausea,
diarrhea,
stomach cramps,
trouble sleeping,
loss of appetite.
Levamisole
Levamisole opens nematode AChRs that are
ligand-gated, non-selective
cationchannels.
[25]
Agranulocytosis,
skin rash, and
febrile illness.
Ivermectin
Ivermectin increases the activity of γ-
aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors or
glutamate-gated chloride ion channels (Glu-
Cl), which blockades the signal between
neurons and muscles.
[21,26]
Dizziness, loss of
appetite, nausea,
diarrhea,
weakness.
2. Review of literature
2.1 Helminthic zoonoses
Helminthic zoonoses are parasitic worm infections that are naturally transmitted between animals and humans,
representing a major public health and veterinary concern worldwide.
[27]
Zoonotic diseases account for more
than 60% of all human infectious diseases, with helminth parasites contributing substantially to this global
burden. Transmission to humans occurs through multiple routes, most commonly via the accidental ingestion
of infective eggs or larvae present in contaminated food, water, or soil. For example, Ascaris spp. and Trichuris
spp. are primarily transmitted through the fecal–oral route, whereas infective larvae of hookworms and
Schistosoma spp. can actively penetrate intact skin. Several helminths possess complex life cycles involving
intermediate and definitive hosts, with humans serving as either intermediate or definitive hosts depending on
the parasite species (Fig. 2). In contrast, some nematodes, such as roundworms and whipworms, readily infect
both humans and animals. Environmental, socioeconomic, and behavioral factors, including sanitation, hygiene,
climatic conditions, food preparation practices, dietary habits, and exposure to infected animals or vectors,
strongly influence the prevalence and transmission of helminthic zoonoses. Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs)
are the most widespread human helminth infections, collectively affecting approximately one-quarter of the
global population.
[28]
The major STHs include Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloidesstercoralis, Trichuris trichiura,
and the hookworms Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus.
[29]
In addition to STHs, several foodborne
and waterborne helminth infections—including echinococcosis, fascioliasis, taeniasis, cysticercosis,
diphyllobothriasis, capillariasis, and ascariasis—remain important but often under-recognized causes of
human disease. Their incidence has increased in recent years due to international travel, globalization of the
food supply, changing dietary preferences, and the growing consumption of raw or undercooked foods,
underscoring the continued need for effective surveillance, prevention, and control strategies.
[30]
Fig. 2: Life cycle of nematodes (A) direct life cycle (in monogenous nematodes), (B) indirect life cycle (in
heterogenous nematodes), (C) indirect life cycle in the self-host (in auto-heterogenous nematodes). There are four
stages in a nematode's life cycle: egg, four larval or juvenile stages, and adult. At each juvenile stage, the cuticle sheds,
and the nematode increases in size. Nematode's growth depends on the conditions inside the host.
2.2 Helminth infections and host immune regulation
Helminths have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to evade and manipulate host immune responses, enabling
long-term survival within their hosts while minimizing excessive tissue damage. Through millions of years of
coevolution, these parasites have established a finely balanced relationship with their hosts by modulating both
innate and adaptive immunity, thereby promoting chronic infection and limiting harmful inflammatory
responses.
[31]
A key strategy employed by helminths is the secretion of excretory/secretory (ES) products,
including extracellular vesicles (EVs). These vesicles transport a diverse range of bioactive molecules, including
proteins, lipids, messenger RNAs, and microRNAs, that regulate host immune signaling pathways and suppress
protective immune responses.
[32]
Growing evidence suggests that EV-mediated communication plays a central
role in host–parasite interactions and offers promising targets for the development of novel therapeutics and
vaccines.
[33]
Nevertheless, further studies are required to elucidate the specific functions of individual EV cargo
molecules and their interactions with different immune cell populations. Among helminths, Schistosoma spp.
provide one of the best-characterized examples of parasite-mediated immune regulation. In addition to causing
chronic hepatic, intestinal, urinary, and renal diseases, schistosomes can modulate host immunity in ways that
reduce the severity of certain inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. Experimental studies have
demonstrated that Schistosoma mansoni infection alleviates allergic airway inflammation, suppresses
autoimmune diabetes in mice, and delays disease progression in experimental models of multiple sclerosis.
[5]
The eggs of S. mansoni not only contribute to disease pathology but also secrete immunomodulatory molecules,
including the glycoprotein omega-1, which plays a pivotal role in directing host immune responses toward a
regulatory phenotype.
[34]
Such immune modulation limits excessive inflammation, thereby enhancing host
survival while facilitating long-term parasite persistence.
Helminth infections are also the leading cause of eosinophilia among travellers, accounting for approximately
30–60% of reported cases, with schistosomiasis representing the predominant diagnosis.
[35]
Although
substantial progress has been made in schistosomiasis control through preventive chemotherapy and public
health interventions, implementation remains uneven across endemic regions due to limited healthcare
infrastructure and incomplete treatment coverage. Antibody-based assays remain useful for diagnosing
travellers and individuals living in low-endemic or post-elimination settings. In contrast, antigen detection and
parasite DNA-based assays are emerging as promising tools for field surveillance and disease monitoring.
[36]
Human hookworms, including Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, are major causes of iron-
deficiency anemia and protein malnutrition, particularly among children. Interestingly, increasing evidence
indicates that hookworm infections also possess immunomodulatory properties. Infection with N. americanus
has been associated with reduced dust mite sensitization and decreased asthma-related wheezing in children.
[37]
Likewise, excretory/secretory products from the canine hookworm Ancylostoma caninum suppress allergic
airway inflammation in murine models by inducing Th2-associated cytokines, including interleukin-5 (IL-5)
and interleukin-13 (IL-13).
[38]
Furthermore, experimental infection with N. americanus has been shown to
reduce intestinal expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interferon-γ in patients with autoimmune
disorders such as celiac disease.
[5]
Collectively, these findings demonstrate that, despite their pathogenicity,
helminths possess remarkable immunomodulatory properties that may inspire the development of novel
immunotherapeutic strategies.
2.3 Current anthelmintic therapy and drug resistance
Despite the enormous global burden of helminth infections, therapeutic options remain limited to only a few
classes of anthelmintic drugs. Benzimidazoles (albendazole, mebendazole, and triclabendazole), praziquantel,
and macrocyclic lactones such as ivermectin constitute the cornerstone of helminth control in both human and
veterinary medicine. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends albendazole and praziquantel for the
treatment of several intestinal helminth infections and for preventive chemotherapy programs, particularly
among school-aged children, who represent the principal target population for mass drug administration.
[39,40]
Each class of anthelmintic drugs exhibits a distinct mechanism of action. Benzimidazoles selectively bind to β-
tubulin, disrupting microtubule polymerization, impairing glucose uptake, and ultimately causing energy
depletion and the parasite's death.
[41]
Praziquantel increases the permeability of the parasite's tegument to
calcium ions, resulting in sustained muscle contraction, paralysis, and parasite elimination.
[42]
In contrast,
ivermectin targets glutamate-gated chloride ion channels located in the nerve and muscle cells of nematodes,
producing membrane hyperpolarization, paralysis, and eventual death of the parasite.
[43]
Although these drugs
have substantially reduced the global burden of helminthiasis, they have several limitations, including limited
activity against certain parasite species or developmental stages, poor bioavailability of some compounds (e.g.,
albendazole), the need for repeated treatment, and the increasing emergence of drug resistance. Treatment
failures have now been reported for several human and veterinary helminths, particularly schistosomes and
gastrointestinal nematodes, raising concerns regarding the long-term sustainability of existing control
programs.
[44]
Anthelmintic resistance has become especially widespread in livestock, with prevalence exceeding
50% in many regions worldwide, resulting in significant economic losses, reduced animal productivity, and
compromised animal welfare.
[12]
An overview of the major helminth infections affecting humans and animals,
together with their first-line therapies and reported resistance, is presented in Table 2.
Drug resistance arises through multiple molecular and genetic mechanisms. These include alterations in drug
targets that reduce binding affinity; modifications in drug metabolism that enhance detoxification or decrease
drug activation; alterations in drug transport, including increased efflux that reduces intracellular drug
accumulation; and amplification or overexpression of target genes that reduce drug susceptibility.
[12]
Additional
mechanisms, such as mutations in receptor genes, altered gene expression, and enhanced xenobiotic
detoxification pathways, further contribute to the evolution of resistant parasite populations. Recognizing the
growing threat of anthelmintic resistance, a Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC)-
sponsored workshop identified four major research priorities: the development of improved diagnostic tools
for resistance detection, a better understanding of drug mechanisms and resistance pathways, deeper insights
into parasite biology, and the establishment of predictive decision-support systems for sustainable parasite
control. These priorities emphasize the urgent need for integrated management strategies that extend beyond
reliance on conventional chemotherapy. Among livestock parasites, gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) remain
one of the greatest constraints on profitable animal production worldwide. The widespread emergence of
resistant parasite populations, together with the limited number of available drug classes and the high cost of
developing new anthelmintics, has stimulated interest in alternative control strategies. Plant -derived
anthelmintics, widely used in ethnoveterinary medicine, have demonstrated promising antiparasitic activity in
numerous experimental studies (Table 3). However, their efficacy is often influenced by variability in
phytochemical composition, dosage, host nutrition, and potential anti-nutritional effects. Consequently,
Common Name
Scientific Name
Disease caused;
Symptoms
Human
Population
infected
Livestock
infected
Region
affected
Age group
infected
Fatality
Treatment
Dosage
Resistance
towards drug
Side effects of drug
Giant
roundworm
Ascaris lumbricoides
Ascariasis;
Abdominal pain,
vomiting, weight
loss, fatigue
807 million to
1.2 billion
NR
Tropical
and
subtropical
regions
2-10
years
Mostly
not fatal
Albendazole
400 mg
PO once
[45]
Yes
[46]
Headache, fever,
nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain,
temporary hair
loss, dizziness
[47]
Whipworm
Trichuris trichiura
Trichuriasi;
Abdominal pain,
diarrhea,
tiredness
604-795
million
NR
Tropical
regions
5-15
years
No
Albendazole
200-
400mg
Yes
[48]
NR
Mebendazole
100mg
twice a
day
Yes
[48]
Abdominal pain,
diarrhea,
headache,
dizziness
[19]
Ivermectin
200
mcg/kg
daily
[49]
Yes
[50]
Loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting,
constipation
[47]
New world
hookworm
Necator americanus
Hookworm
disease;
Abdominal pain,
iron deficiency
because of
chronic blood
loss
576-740
million
NR
South India,
Africa, Asia,
Australia,
America
5-9 years
No
Albendazole
400mg
once
Yes
[51]
Headache, fever,
nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain,
temporary hair
loss, dizziness
[47]
Mebendazole
500mg
orally
once
[52]
Yes
[53]
Abdominal pain,
diarrhea,
headache,
dizziness
[19]
Old world
hookworm
Ancylostoma duodenale
Ancylostomiasis/
Wakana
Syndrome;
Rash at the site
of larval entry,
abdominal pain,
iron deficiency
because of
chronic blood
loss
576-740
million
NR
North India,
Middle
East, North
Africa
< 4 years
No
Albendazole
400mg
once
Yes
[54]
Headache, fever,
nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain,
temporary hair
loss, dizziness
[47]
Mebendazole
500mg
orally
once
[52]
Yes
[53]
Abdominal pain,
diarrhea,
headache,
dizziness
[19]
Blood Fluke
Schistosoma species
Schistosomiasis;
Fever, chills,
cough, muscle
aches, abdominal
pain, blood in
stool or urine.
236.6 million
NR
Sub-
Saharan
Africa,
South
America, -
Caribbean,
Middle East
6-15
years
Yes
Praziquantel
20
mg/kg
thrice a
day
[55]
Yes
[56]
Headache,
dizziness, stomach
pain, nausea,
vomiting,
joint/muscle pain,
sweating
[57]
River blindness
Onchocercavolvulus
Onchocerciasis;
Skin rashes,
itching, bumps
under the skin,
itching of eyes,
cataract
120 million
NR
African
Countries
35-45;
primarily
males
No
Ivermectin
150mg/
kg once
a year
Yes
[58]
Loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting,
constipation
[47]
Threadworm
Strongyloidesstercoralis
Strongyloidiasis;
Abdominal pain,
diarrhea, cough,
vomiting, red
hives near the
anus, weight loss
3-100 million
NR
Brazil,
Central
America
16-45
years
Yes
Stromectol
200
mcg/kg
[59]
Yes
[60,61]
Headache, nausea,
muscle pain,
diarrhea, swelling
of
hands/ankles/feet,
itching
[62]
Albendazole
400 mg
twice a
day
[63]
Yes
[61]
Headache, fever,
nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain,
temporary hair
loss, dizziness
[47]
Chinese liver
fluke
Clonorchis sinensis
Chlonorchiasis;
Indigestion,
abdominal pain,
diarrhea,
constipation,
inflammation.
35 million
NR
Eastern
Asia
40-60
years
Yes
Praziquantel
25
mg/kg
thrice a
day
[64]
-
Headache,
dizziness, stomach
pain, nausea,
vomiting,
joint/muscle pain,
sweating
[57]
Albendazole
[65]
10
mg/kg
once a
day
-
Headache, fever,
nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain,
temporary hair
loss, dizziness
[47]
Filariae
Roundworms of the
Filarioidea type
Lymphatic
filariasis;
Itchy skin,
abdominal pain,
25 million
NR
Tropical
countries
Adults
Rarely
fatal
Diethylcarbamazine
Day
1&2: 50
mg PO
PC
Yes
[67]
Fever, painful and
tender glands in
neck, armpits, skin
rash
muscle pain,
swelling under
the skin,
enlarged liver
and spleen,
inflammation.
Day 3:
100 mg
PO TID
Day 4-
14: 6
mg/kg/
day PO
divided
TID
[66]
Albendazole;
400 mg
twice a
day for
21 days
[68]
Yes
[67]
Headache, fever,
nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain,
temporary hair
loss, dizziness
[47]
Ivermectin
Not
very
effectiv
e
[68,69]
Yes
[67]
Loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting,
constipation
[47]
Southeast
Asian liver
fluke
Opisthorchis viverrini
Opisthorchiasis,
Fever, anorexia,
nausea, vomiting,
abdominal pain.
10 million
NR
Southeast
Asia
>35 years
Yes
Praziquantel
75
mg/kg
thrice a
day for
2 days
Yes
[70-73]
Headache,
dizziness, stomach
pain, nausea,
vomiting,
joint/muscle pain,
sweating
[57]
Albendazole
100
mg/kg
twice
daily for
3 days
[72,73]
Yes
[74]
Headache, fever,
nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain,
temporary hair
loss, dizziness
[47]
Barber’s pole
worm
Haemonchuscontortus
Anemia, bottle
jaw
10 million
NR
Sub-
Saharan
Africa,
South Asia
Infants
and
school-
age
children
Yes
Ivermectin
1 mL/5
kg live
weight
-
Yes, towards
amino-
acetonitrile
derivative
class
(monepantel)
[75]
Loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting,
constipation
[47]
Albendazole
7.5
mg/kg
[76]
Headache, fever,
nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain,
temporary hair
loss, dizziness
[47]
Fenbendazole
5
mg/kg
Salivation,
vomiting,
diarrhea
[77]
Moxidectin
[76]
0.2
mg/kg
[78]
Increased or
decreased WBCs,
musculoskeletal
pain, headache, fast
heart rate,
abdominal pain,
rash, low BP
[79]
Giant Intestinal
Fluke
Fasciolopsisbuski
Fasciolopsiasis;
Abdominal pain
and diarrhea,
nausea, vomiting,
and fever.
10 million
NR
Southern
and eastern
Asia
Females
are
affected
more than
males;
10-20
years
Yes
Praziquantel
75
mg/kg
thrice a
day for
2 days
[80]
-
Headache,
dizziness, stomach
pain, nausea,
vomiting,
joint/muscle pain,
sweating
[57]
Triclabendazole
Two
doses of
10
mg/kg
12
hours
apart
Yes
[70,80]
Nausea, urticaria,
vomiting,
headache,
indigestion,
musculoskeletal
pain
[80]
-
Heterophyesheterophyes
Heterophyiasis;
Diarrhea and
colicky
abdominal pain.
7 million
NR
Middle
East, West
Europe,
Africa
50-62
years
No
Praziquantel
75
mg/kg/
day in 3
divided
doses
[81]
-
Headache,
dizziness, stomach
pain, nausea,
vomiting,
joint/muscle pain,
sweating
[57]
Cattle
Hookworm
Bunostomumphlebotomum
Bunostomosis;
Anemia,
diarrhea, weight
loss, dermatitis
NR
14.7% in
sheep and
29.6% in
cattle
[82]
Warm and
Humid
Regions
NR
No
Thiabendazole
[83]
110mg/
kg
-
Nausea, vomiting,
loss of appetite,
upset stomach,
diarrhea, dizziness,
drowsiness,
headache
[47]
Benzimidazole
Yes
Dizziness,
anorexia, nausea,
and vomiting
[84]
Levamisole
10
mg/kg
Yes
Blurred vision,
confusion, seizures,
lip-smacking,
numbness,
paranoia, puffing of
cheeks, worm-like
movement of the
tongue
[47]
Ivermectin
[85]
Yes
Loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting,
constipation
[47]
Fenbendazole
[86]
10
mg/kg
Salivation,
vomiting,
diarrhea
[77]
Stomach worm
Trichostrongylusaxei
Catarrhal
gastritis; weight
loss, ulcers
5 million
NR
NR
NR
Infection
in young
animals
can be
fatal
Benzimidazole
36.7
mg/day
Benzimidazol
e in sheep,
horses
[87,88]
Dizziness,
anorexia, nausea,
and vomiting
[84]
Common liver
fluke
Fasciola hepatica
Fasciolosis;
Fever, malaise,
abdominal pain,
eosinophilia,
hepatomegaly.
2.4 million
NR
Tropical
areas
9-12
years
Yes
Triclabendazole
10
mg/kg
twice a
day
[80]
Triclabendaz
ole
[70]
Nausea, urticaria,
vomiting,
headache,
indigestion,
musculoskeletal
pain
[80]
Name of plant
Part of
plant used
Traditional Use
Active Components
Acts against
Effect on life cycle
Molecular Mechanism
Artemesia
herba-alba
fresh
flower and
aerial parts
Enteritis and various
intestinal disturbances
among Bedouins in the
Negev desert.
Tannins
(Proanthocyanidins)
H. contortus, H. gallinarum, T. colubriformis
[89-91]
Decrease in egg hatching,
blocking development to
the infective larval stage
and reduced motility of
larvae and adult stage of
H. contortus
Tannins interfere with coupled
oxidative phosphorylation and
block ATP synthesis, Protein
damage
Punica
granatum
peel and
root
To treat sore throats,
urinary infections,
digestive and skin
disorders, and expel
tapeworms.
Gallic acid
H. contortus (in sheep), A. lumbricoides, E.
papillate, A. caliginosa, G. indicus
[91-95]
Decrease in egg hatching,
ovicidal activity. Decrease
in goblet cell numbers at
the site of E. papillate
infection.
Gallic acid interferes with
oxidative coupled
phosphorylation and blocks
ATP synthesis. Punica
granatum prevented the
infection-induced loss of GSH
and increased the production
of NO and MDA.
Carica papaya
L.
leaves,
fruit, and
seed
It treats and improves
digestive and
abdominal disorders.
papain (papaya
proteinase I) and
Benzyl
Isothiocyanate
T. colubriformis, H. polygyrus, P. posthuman,
H. polygyrus, H. bakeri
[96-101]
Drop-in fecal egg count
The aqueous extract inhibited
glucose uptake and depleted
glycogen content in the
presence of glucose and
increased lactate
dehydrogenase, thus inhibiting
ATP production or
accumulation of lactic acid.
Allium sativum
L.
bulbs
It has preventive
characteristics in
cardiovascular
diseases, regulating
blood pressure,
lowering blood sugar
and cholesterol levels.
acetylcholine
A. galli, H. contortus, F. gigantica, T. canis, A.
caninum, H. gallinae (Jeyathilakan et al.
2012)
[102-106]
Extract reduced L
4
population of H. contortus
in values higher than 50%
Acetylcholine suppresses
smooth muscle contraction,
causing paralysis, and allicin
disrupt the glycolytic pathway,
and no energy leads to the
death of A. galli
Cucurbita
mexicana
seeds
Seeds are used in
Mexico to make
palanquetas
(sweet,similar to
Cucurbitacin
A. lumbricoides, H. diminuta, F. gigantica, M.
expansa, F. buski
[107-109]
Reduction in egg count,
inhibition of egg hatching
NH
4
concentration dropped due
to its oxidation to NO
3
, causing
the elimination of air by water
peanut brittle). Jam is
made out of its fruit.
Albizia
ferruginea
Stem bark
To treat dysentery,
bronchial affections,
and pain caused by
fever, it is applied
externally to sores,
pimples, and other
skin complaints.
Tannins, saponins,
glycosides, alkaloids,
and coumarins
P. posthuman, H. contortu
[110]
Enhanced disruption of
the integrity of the
helminth tegument,
inhibition of motility.
Reduction in glucose uptake by
the worm. Inhibition of
homovanilic acid and binds to
enzymes.
Nigella sativa
seeds
To manage pain
during menstruation
and treat diabetes and
high blood pressure
Thymoquinone,
Dithimoquinone,
Thymol, and Palmitic
acid
S.mansoni, C. cotylophorum
[108,111,112]
Inhibition of egg-laying
and motility.
Oxidative stress against adult
worms and decrease in the
activity of antioxidant enzymes
(superoxide dismutase and
glutathione peroxidase),
glutathione reductase, and
enzymes of glucose metabolism
(hexokinase and glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase)
Piper longum L.
Fruit and
leaves
It is used in India,
Malaysia, Singapore,
and other South Asian
Countries as an
analgesic, carminative,
and to treat asthma
and insomnia.
Piperine,
Piperlongumine
A. Lumbricoides, F. giganticum, P. posthuma,
[99,113]
Causes 50% inhibition of
egg hatching even at the
lowest concentration;
increase in larval motility;
larval migration inhibition
(1.95 mg/mL)
Suppression of transfer of
sucrose from the stomach to
the small intestine, reducing
nitrate generation interfering
in homeostasis. Also, it inhibits
glucose uptake by worms.
Ocimum
sanctum L.
leaves
To treat bronchitis,
bronchial asthma,
malaria, diarrhea, skin
diseases.
Eugenol,
Tannins and
flavonoids
C. elegans, A. galli, F. gigantica
[114-116]
ethanol extract with 10%
concentration and
exposure time for 10
hours caused the most
mortality.
Tannins increase protein
uptake. Flavonoids affect the
nervous system leading to
neuron degeneration.
Azadirachta
indica
leaves
Used for leprosy, eye
disorders, bloody
nose, skin ulcers, etc.
Azadirachtin
F. gigantica, P. cervi, F. hepatica, H. contortus,
P. posthuma
[117-121]
Deformation of body
shape, eggs were
blackened.
Depletion of glycogen contents
and disturbs calcium
homeostasis and Nitrous Oxide
activity.
Moringa
Oleifera
Leaves and
seeds
Kings and queens used
Moringa oleiferato
improve their
Tannins, Flavonoids,
Triterpenoids,
Saponins, and
Alkaloids
D. medinensis, S. mansoni, B. alexandrina, H.
contortus, Trichuris spp., Ostertagia spp.
[122-125]
Alterations were seen in
the embryonic
development of the eggs,
where all embryos are at
Increased transaminases (ALT
and AST) decrease total
proteins, albumin, and globulin
alertness and maintain
healthy skin.
the last stage (pre-
hatching).
concentration and damage
digestive cells.
Artemisia
annua L.
leaves
To treat fever,
inflammation, and
malaria
Artemisinin,
Quercetin
F. hepatica, Schistosoma spp., H. contortus
[126-128]
Tegumental alterations
and reduction of motor
activity of adult worms.
Interference with parasite
transport proteins, disruption
of mitochondrial function, host
immune function modulation,
and angiogenesis inhibition.
Expression of Hc29 gene
causing ROS. ROS dependant
neuronal and other tissue
damage.
Butea
monosperma
Seed, root,
flower, and
leaves
It is an anthropogenic
tree of several castes.
The use of its gum as
an external astringent
application is
mentioned in
“Chakradatta.”
Palasonin and
Tannins, phenolics,
flavonoids
A. lumbricoides, A. galli, D. caninum, T. canis,
H. contortus, C. elegans, Trichostrongylid
nematodes, D. caninum
[99,129]
Peptide inhibitor affects
the growth and
development physiology
of the helminths.
Affects the activity of gut
proteases.
Terminalia
arjuna
Leaf, bud,
root, seed,
and stem,
bark
In traditional
ayurvedic medicine,
Terminalia arjuna
balances three
“humor”: Kapha, Pitta,
and Vata.
Condensed tannin
and ellagic acid
Eggs, larvae, and adults of H. contortus, P.
posthuma
[130-133]
Condensed tannins cause
larval starvation.
Decrease in gastrointestinal
metabolism by inhibition of
oxidative phosphorylation.
Also, inhibition in key enzymes,
i.e., AChE and AcPase activities.
Cymbopogon
martini
Whole
plant
The essential oil has
applications in
aromatherapy.
Therapeutic
properties include
antiseptic, antiviral,
and antibacterial.
Geraniol
C. Elegans, P. posthuma
[134,135]
Inhibiting egg hatching
and larval development.
Geraniol triggers enzymatic
activity in the worms.
Mentha
cordifolia
Leaf
Used in cooking,
cosmetics, treatment
of gastrointestinal
disorders.
Glucosides, β-
Sitosterols
A. suum
[136]
Reduction in egg count.
β-Sitosterols trigger apoptosis,
higher caspase activity. It
minimizes the number of
squirms caused by acetic acid.
Calotropis
Procera
Leaves
Used for diarrhea,
stomatic, sinus fistula,
and skin disease.
Anthocyanins,
Triterpenoids,
alkaloids
H. contortus, P. posthuma
[137,138]
Disorganization of the
cuticle, muscle layer
degradation.
Reduction in egg count.
Cysteine proteases cause
changes in the cuticle and
inhibit the motility of the
worms.
Aloe ferox
Leaf
Yellow bitter sap is
used as a laxative, and
white gel is used in
health drinks and
skincare products.
Phenol,
, Alkaloids, and
Flavonoids
Trichuris spp., H. contortus, Trichostrongylus,
Teladorsagia nematodes, H. gallinarum
[139-
141]
Affects egg-laying ability
of female adult worms
Blocks glucose uptake.
Chelidonium
majus
Upper part
(Stem,
leaves)
To treat blood stasis,
relieve pain, to treat
jaundice
Chelerythrine;
Chelidonine
T. canis, D. intermedius
[142]
Mortality after 24 hours
Chelerythrine exhibit cytotoxic
properties against normal cells,
exerting apoptosis-inducing
pathways.
Macleaya spp.
Upper part
(Stem)
Macleaya cordata is a
traditional antiviral,
anti-inflammatory,
and insecticidal herb
medicine
6-
Methoxydihydrosan
guinarine
T. canis, T. spiralis, D. intermedius
[142-144]
Mortality after 24 hours;
Decrease in rate of eggs
hatching
Sanguinarine increases
intestinal goblet cell
hyperplasia.
Onobrychis
viciifolia
peel
For stabilizing soils
Rutin, Nicotiflorin,
Narcissin,
Condensed Tannin
H. contortus, O. ostertagi, C. oncophora, T.
colubriformis
[145,146]
Inhibition of migration of
L3 worms and larval
feedings.
Tannins interfere with coupled
oxidative phosphorylation and
block ATP synthesis.
Cissampelos
capensis
Upper part
For treatment of
intermittent fever,
heatstroke
(S)-Dicentrine,
63(S)- Neolitsine
H. contortus, P. posthuma
[147,148]
Inhibition of larval
development.
An increase in chloride ion
conductance of worm muscle
membrane produces
hyperpolarization and reduced
excitability leading to flaccid
paralysis.
Acacia
oxyphylla
Stem bark
Acacia oxyphylla has
been traditionally
used by natives of
Mizoram against
intestinal worm
infections.
12-Amino-7,17-
dioxo-2-oxa-8,16-
diazatricyclo
[14.2.2.2 3,6]
tetraicosa-1
(20),3,5,18,21,23-
hexaene-12-
carboxylic acid (F5-
2d)
A. galli, R. echinobothrida
[149-151]
Cysteine proteinases
cause wrinkles and folds
of the cuticle, followed by
blistering and gradual
digestion of the cuticle.
AcPase and AlkPase activity
decreased.
Eryngium
foetidum
Whole
plant
Used in tropical
regions for burns,
earache, fever,
hypertension,
constipation, fits,
asthma
Eryngial
S. stercoralis, Paramphistomum spp., P.
posthuman, T. tubifex
[152,153]
Larval mortality after 24
hours.
Inhibition of α-glucosidases.
Cinnamomum
verum
Bark
To treat headache,
chills, abdominal pain,
cough, chest tightness,
diarrhea
Trans-
Cinnamaldehyde
A. suum, T. suis, O. dentatum, A. galli, P.
posthuma, H. contortus
[154,155]
Larval mortality after 12
hours.
Trans-cinnamaldehyde, an α, β
unsaturated aldehyde, reacts
with nitrogen groups,
interferes with key enzymes,
and can cause cell lysis.
Dichapetalum
filicaule
Whole
roots
Used as a food
additive; solidifier and
control release agent
in pharmaceuticals;
resin lubricant.
Dichapetalin A,
Glycerol
monostearate
N. americanus, S. haematobium
[156]
Inhibition of egg hatching
The opening of glutamate-
gated chloride channels,
increasing the flow of chloride
ions and leading to defects in
neurotransmission and flaccid
paralysis
Thymus
vulgaris
Leaves
Used as herbal tea,
stimulant,
Antiflatulent, cough
depressant, treatment
of a common cold.
Thymol, Thymol
acetate
H. contortus, E. granulosus
[157,158]
Effective against three
stages of H. contortus: Egg
hatching, larval
development, and adult
stages.
Enzyme (GGT) activity
decreased.
Melaleuca
alternifolia
Leaves
Antiseptic and anti-
inflammatory
properties
Terpinen-4-ol
H. contortus, A. simplex
[159,160]
TTO inhibits in vitro egg
hatch, larval migration
terp-4-ol was able to prevent
increased levels of AST and
ALT.
Ajania
nubigena
Aerial part
Have antimalarial
properties
Luteolin, (3R,6R)-
Linalool oxide aceta
T. muris, S. mansoni
[161]
Luteolin induces
tegumental damage to S.
mansoni and affects the
cuticle, bacillary bands,
and bacillary glands of T.
muris
Compounds Interfere with
coupled oxidative
phosphorylation.
Mundulea
sericea
Upper part
Zulus use the leaves as
an emetic to treat
poisoning in both
people and dogs
Deguelin
H. contortus
[142,162]
Caused mortality but at
lower rates.
Deguelin exerts a toxic effect on
nematodes as a modulator of
oxidative phosphorylation.
Ruta
chalepensis
Air-dried
aerial parts
Used as an anti-
inflammatory,
analgesic, antipyretic
agent
2-Decanone, 2-
Nonanone, 2-
Undecanone
Teladorsagia spp., H. contortus, and
Trichostrongylus spp., O. trigotephras
[142,163,164]
Inhibition of egg hatching
and larvae motility.
Oxidative Stress
Gliricidia
sepium
leaves
Used for live fencing,
fodder, firewood,
green manure,
intercropping, and rat
poison
2H-Chromen-2-one
C. punctata
[165]
Electron density
alterations and fractures
in eggshell layers.
Anti-exsheathment activity.
Avena sativa
Oat seeds
To treat nervous
exhaustion, insomnia,
and weakness of
nerves.
AveB and
26DGAveB
H. bakeri
[166]
AveB and 26DGAve B
leads to abnormalities in
L1 larvae, inhibits egg
hatching
Altered embryogenesis in the
egg; overexpression of CED-9
preventing apoptosis; ATP
inhibition.
Tagetes filifolia
Aerial Parts
As a food flavoring, a
tea, and a diuretic
Chlorogenic acid
H. contortus
[153,167]
Inhibits egg hatching
ROS-induced cytotoxicity.
Acacia
cochliacantha
Leaves
As an antiseptic,
demulcent, purgative,
and effective tonic in
diabetes mellitus
Caffeoyl and
coumaroyl
derivatives: Caffeic
acid, p-coumaric
acid, Ferulic acid,
Methyl caffeate,
Methyl p-
coumarate, Methyl
ferulate,
Quercetin
H. contortus
[168]
Ovicidal and larvicidal
activity
ROS dependant neuronal and
other tissue damage.
Persea
americana
Seeds
Leaves used against
dysentery, coughs,
high blood pressure,
liver problems, and
gout
Epicatechin, rutin,
chlorogenic acid,
quercetin
H. contortus
[142,169]
Inhibits L3 motility.
ROS-induced cytotoxicity.
Ficus
benjamina
Latex
To treat skin
disorders,
inflammation, piles,
vomiting, leprosy,
malaria, nose diseases.
CM-cellulose, a
cysteine protease
(FbP)
H. contortus
[170]
Degradation of the cuticle
of adult nematodes.
Hydrolysis of peptide bonds of
the protein.
Baccharis
conferta
Aerial parts
Forage for farm
animals.
Isokaempferide
H. contortus
[171]
Inhibits egg hatching.
Isokaempferide crosses the
eggshell layer without breaking
it and attaches itself to the
embryo, causing its death.
Senegalia
gaumeri
Leaves
-
p-Coumaric acid
H. contortus
[172]
Ovicidal activity; larvae
failing eclosion
Ovicidal activity; larvae failing
eclosion
Alectryon
oleifolius
Whole
plant
-
Procyanidin A2
Cyathostomins
[173]
Procyanidin A2
completely inhibits
development from egg to
third larval stage. It also
inhibits the larval
migration.
Triggers apoptosis.
Brazilian Red
Propolis
Whole
plant
Mummification rituals,
and more recently in
the industry of food
and beverages,
cosmetics.
Need to be
determined in future
T. cati, S. mansoni
[174,175]
Larvicidal activity
Mechanism not known.
Caesalpinia
coriaria
Fruits
As an antiperiodic and
for dressing sores
Gallic acid
Gastrointestinal nematodes (Cooperia spp.,
Haemonchus spp., Ostertagiaspp.,
Trichostrongylus spp., and
Oesophagostomum spp.)
[176,177]
Inhibits egg hatching
Comounds interact with
eggshell proteins.
Andrographis
paniculata
Leaves
Treatment of cancer,
diabetes, high blood
pressure, ulcers,
bronchitis, influenza,
dysentery, and
malaria.
Andrographolide
A. duodenale, H. contortus
[178,179]
Andrographolide inhibits
egg hatching and larval
motility.
Mechanism not known
Cuminum
cyminum
seeds
Skin infection, fever,
vomiting, nausea,
anticancer,
antidiabetic,
neuroprotection, and
anti-inflammation
Cuminaldehyde
H. contortus
[78]
Induces adult worms and
larvae L3 mortality and
inhibits egg hatching.
Oxidative stress-mediated cell
and tissue damage (including
ROS and NOS).
standardized evaluation methods and integrated approaches are essential for maximizing their therapeutic
benefits while minimizing adverse effects. These limitations have accelerated interest in nanotechnology-based
drug delivery systems, which offer new opportunities to improve the efficacy, bioavailability, and targeted
delivery of existing anthelmintic agents.
2.4 Nanotechnological approaches for eliminating helminthic diseases
The rapid emergence of anthelmintic resistance, coupled with the limited number of available drug classes, has
accelerated the search for innovative therapeutic strategies. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising
platform for improving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of parasitic diseases by enhancing drug
delivery and therapeutic efficacy.
[180]
Nanomaterials, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nm in size, are composed
of metallic, non-metallic, or hybrid materials whose physicochemical properties can be tailored through
controlled synthesis and surface functionalization.
[181]
Polymer coatings are commonly employed to improve
biocompatibility, prolong circulation time, and enable selective targeting of biological molecules.
[182]
The size,
morphology, and surface characteristics of nanoparticles are influenced by synthesis parameters, including
precursor composition, surfactants, reaction temperature, solvent system, and reactant concentrations (Table
4).
[183]
Conventional anthelmintic drugs primarily target parasite neuromuscular function or essential metabolic
pathways, leading to paralysis, starvation, and eventual elimination of the parasite.
[184]
However, their
effectiveness is often compromised by poor aqueous solubility, limited bioavailability, nonspecific tissue
distribution, rapid clearance, and the increasing prevalence of drug-resistant parasite populations.
[185]
Nanotechnology offers an attractive solution to these limitations by improving drug stability, controlled release,
cellular uptake, and site-specific delivery while reducing systemic toxicity. Consequently, nanoparticle-based
drug delivery systems have gained considerable attention for enhancing the efficacy of existing anthelmintic
agents rather than relying solely on the discovery of entirely new drugs.
An additional advantage of nanoformulation is its potential to mitigate transporter-mediated mechanisms of
anthelmintic resistance. In resistant parasites, increased expression or activity of drug-efflux transporters can
reduce the intracellular accumulation of anthelmintic compounds, thereby decreasing their access to molecular
targets. Encapsulation within polymeric or lipid-based nanocarriers, such as PLGA nanoparticles, solid lipid
nanoparticles (SLNs), and liposomes, can alter the physicochemical form and cellular trafficking of the drug,
reducing its immediate exposure to membrane-associated efflux systems. Following uptake of the nanocarrier
via endocytic or other membrane-associated processes, the encapsulated drug can be released intracellularly
in a controlled manner, providing sustained drug exposure and potentially increasing the fraction of drug that
reaches its intracellular or membrane-associated targets. In addition, modulation of particle size, surface
charge, lipid composition, and surface functionalization can influence membrane interaction, cellular uptake,
and intracellular trafficking, thereby providing delivery routes that differ from those of the freely dissolved
drug. Thus, nano-delivery may partially circumvent rapid efflux by modifying the route, kinetics, and
intracellular availability of the anthelmintic rather than directly inhibiting the resistance mechanism itself. This
distinction is important because a nanocarrier's ability to overcome efflux-mediated resistance likely depends
on the physicochemical properties of the carrier, the anthelmintic compound, the relevant transporter, and the
parasite species. Consequently, nanocarriers may complement conventional resistance-management strategies
by improving drug exposure at the parasite target while reducing the extent to which transporter-mediated
drug extrusion limits therapeutic efficacy. Nanomedicine applies engineered nanomaterials for disease
diagnosis, prevention, and therapy.
[186-189]
Although initially developed for applications such as oncology and
infectious diseases, advances in nanomedicine have provided valuable strategies to improve antiparasitic
chemotherapy. Compared with conventional formulations, nanocarriers can increase the solubility of
hydrophobic drugs, protect active compounds from premature degradation, prolong circulation time, and
facilitate targeted delivery to infected tissues. These advantages may reduce dosing frequency, improve
therapeutic outcomes, and minimize adverse effects, making nanomedicine an attractive approach for both
human and veterinary helminthiasis.
[190]
Nanoparticles
Size and
Shape
Surface
Protection
Synthesis
Tested Against
Dose
Mechanism
Ag
78.5 to 100
nm; mostly
circular
Polyaniline
100 mL aq. Solution of 1.0 x 10
-3
M silver
nitrate mixed with 300 mL aq. Solution of
2.0 x 10
-3
M sodium borohydride. Ag ions
were then reduced and formed NPs. Ag
NPs were then mixed with Momordica
charantia aq. extract.
Adult earthworms
P. posthuma
50 mg/ml
+ve charge on Ag attracts -vely
charged cell membrane of the
parasites. The phytochemicals (M.
charantia) attach with glycoprotein
on the parasite cuticle and cause
death.
[191,192]
17 ± 9 nm;
spherical
Aqueous
extract of L.
parasiticum
(ALE) (pH 7.0)
240 µM AgNO
3
wasadded to 5000 µl of
ALE.
H. contortus
IC
50
value of 144.4 ± 3.1
nM at 48h of exposure
LAgNPs generated oxidative stress
and mediated physical damage in
worm tissue, leading to a sharp
increase in stress-responsive
enzyme activity.
[193]
14.51±3.25
nm;
spherical
NR
100 ml AgNO
3
added to fungal filtrate (D.
flagrans) in the concentration of 1:50
A. caninum
IC
50
value of AgNPs
(chemical synthesis)
228.2 ± 6.7 µg/mL ; and
AgNPs (D. flagrans)
43.4±6.8 µg/mL
AgNPs penetrate cuticles of larvae,
causing changes in tegmentum and
consequently the death of the
nematode.
[194]
35 ± 15 nm
(ARGOVIT);
1-3 nm
(UTSA)
NR
ARGOVIT AgNP solution- 200 mg/mL
(20%) of polyvinyl-pyrrolidone (PVP);
UTSA solution
Cichlidogyrus spp. of
Monogenean parasites of
fish
36 and 6μg/L UTSA AgNPs
Swelling, loss of grooves, and
disruption of the parasite’s
tegument.
[195]
10-15 nm;
spherical
NR
0.017 g AgNO
3
dissolved in deionized
water and NaOH (0.01 M)
B. malayi
IC50 dose of AgNPs 5 μM
AgNPs caused a decrease in
reduced glutathione (GSH) levels
and an increase in both protein
carbonylation and nitric oxide
(NO) levels indicating oxidative
stress and nitrosative stress.
[196]
∼8 nm;
quasi-
spherical
Tribulus
terrestrisextract
1 ml of ethanolic seed extract of Tribulus
terrestris was added to 5 ml of 1 mM
silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution prepared
in deionized double distilled water
G. explanatum
20 to 50μg/ml of AgNPs
Antioxidant system and
detoxification activity of worms get
disrupted along with pronounced
DNA damage accompanied by an
increase in lipid peroxidation and
protein carbonylation levels
(oxidative stress markers)
[197]
80.42 nm;
spherical
Penicillium
aculeatum
P. aculeatum culture was used, and 3 mM
AgNO
3
E. granulosus
0.15 mg/mL
AgNPs show promising scolicidal
activity.
[198]
30 nm
AgNP suspension at a 1mg/mL
concentration in deionized water was
prepared by probe sonication for 30 min
on ice, and serial 1:2 dilutions were made
in deionized water.
S. japonicum
125 μg/mL
AgNPs induced cercarial tail-
shredding, agitated behavior, and a
decrease in cercarial secretion.
[199]
ZnO NPs
~ 16.7 nm;
hexagonal
NR
0 ml of freshly extracted egg white (5
mg/mL) was mixed with a 70 ml aqueous
solution of 0.25 M zinc acetate.
Ascaridid Nematode; P.
equorum
400 mg/L ZnO NPs
ZnONPs increase levels of ALT,
AST, and ALP (muscle damage,
gonad injury); total protein content
enhancement (worm cellular
dysfunction), increase in MDA level
(cell membrane damage),
depletion in GST and GSH
activities, NO increase.
[200]
16.7 nm;
wurtzite
(hexagonal)
Egg albumin
Freshly extracted 30 ml egg albumin (5
mg/mL) was mixed into 70 ml aqueous
0.25M zinc acetate solution; stirred
20min and precipitated by adding NH3 at
~pH 7.0 and centrifuged at 5000 rpm for
10 min.
G. explanatum (Parasite
of Indian Water Buffalo)
240μg /ml or 0.012% ZnO
NPs
Production of reactive oxygen
species that target macromolecules
including nucleic acid, proteins,
and lipids involved in cellular
functions.
[201]
20–30 nm;
spherical
phosphate-
buffered saline
(PBS)
stock suspension of the ZnO-NPs
prepared in PBS (pH = 7.4) by suspending
10mg ZnO-NPs per ml solution
H. contortus
16 ppm
Induction of oxidative/ nitrosative
stress and DNA damage.
[202]
T. circumcincta
[192]
12-16 ppm
CDS NPs
(Cadmium
sulfide, CdS-G,
and CdS-M)
6.9 nm
(CdS-G) and
6.7 nm
(CdS-M);
crystallite
Hydroxyl
radicals
8gm of cadmium chloride was dissolved
in 100ml of deionized water, followed by
the addition of 100ml aq. solution of 1M
maltose/glucose and 1M sodium sulfide.
P. posthuma
CdS-M nanoparticles show
early paralysis and short
lethal times in comparison
to CdS-G
[203]
-
Gold NPs
6 to 18 nm;
spherical
N. oryzae
gold chloride (HAuCl4) was added to the
culture filtrate
Raillietina
echinobothrida & Fasciolo
psis buski
1.0 mg/ml
Tegumental damage and
disorientation of microtriches,
spines, and scales.
[204,205]
TiO
2
and ZnO
NPs
11 nm (TiO
2
NPs) and
21 nm (ZnO
NPs)
NR
NR
C. elegans
172 mg/ml (TiO
2
NPs)
1.125 mg/ ml (ZnO NPs)
ROS generation, leading to
oxidative stress-mediated
inflammation, genotoxicity, and
cytotoxicity
[206]
Rhodamine B-
labeledmelatonin
(Mel)-loaded
lipid-core
201-220
nm
NR
At 38°C, the organic phase (63 mL
acetone, 0.025 g melatonin, 0.092 g
sorbitan monostearate, 0.403 mL
caprylic/capric triglyceride, and 0.250 g
PCL) injected in aq. phase (50 mL water
C. elegans
[207]
23.70×10
12
to
118.50×10
12
particles/mL
NR
nanocapsules
(LNC)
and 0.1925 g PS80). After 10 minutes, the
organic solvent was eliminated, and
water partially evaporated under reduced
pressure (at 40°C) to reach 23–24 mL of
white opaque liquid product.
ZnO&
L-carnitine
25–40 nm,
spherical
shape
NR
A stock solution was prepared by
dissolving 0.756 mg of ZnO nanoparticles
in 5.4 ml (0.9%) normal saline and stored
at 5 °C for daily injection
S. mansoni
5.6 mg/kg (ZnO NPs) and
500 mg/kg (L-carnitine
NPs)
Decrease in brain oxidative stress
parameter
[208]
MgO NPs
NR
NR
Magnesium nitrate was dissolved in
distilled water, and NaOH was added to
form magnesium hydroxide, which was
washed with distilled water and dried at
100°C.
M. incognita
100 ppm
Deformation of cuticle surface due
to exudation of body fluids
[209]
chitosan-
albendazole
(ChABZ) and
chitosan-
praziquantel
(ChPZQ)
nanoparticles
NR
NR
ABZ powders were dissolved in glacial
acetic acid, and PZQ was dissolved in 96%
ethanol and were then added to the
prepared chitosan solution separately.
Then, an aqueous TPP solution (1.2
mg/ml) was added.
E. granulosus
(Cystic echinococcosis)
Combination of ChABZ
and ChPZQ is more
effective (5 and 10 µg/ml)
[210]
NR
Gold (Au) and
silver (Ag)NPs
NR
NR
NR
B.alexandrina & S.
mansoni
[211]
30 μg/ml Ag and 160
μg/ml Au NPs
NR
Silica NPs
12 and 105
nm
Rhodamine
NR
C. elegans
NR
Disruption of OPT-2/PEP-2-
dependent trafficking of nutrient
peptides in the
intestinal epithelium.
[212]
Barium ferrite
NPs
< 100 nm;
hexagonal
NR
NR
C. elegans
500 µg/mL
Inhibits reproduction and enhance
ROS production
[213]
Thymoquinone-
loaded Albumin
NPs
271.3 nm
Thymoquinone
NR
Planarian platyhelminths
[214]
50 µg/mL
NR
Phytol loaded
PLGA NPs
NR
Phytol
NR
C. elegans
NR
Phytol-PLGANPs suppresses
neuronal Aβ expression induced
defect in chemotaxis behaviour
[215]
Cadmium-
Selenium NPs
NR
NR
NR
C. elegans
[216]
NR
NR
CuO NPs
NR
NR
NR
C. elegans
NR
Degeneration of dopaminergic
neurons
[217]
ZnO and FeO NPs
20-30 nm
(ZnO NPs)
and 20-40
nm (FeO
NPs)
NR
A stock solution of both NPs prepared by
suspending them at a concentration of 10
mg/ml using a sonicator probe at 30 W
for 10 min, while the working solutions of
0.004, 0.008, and 0.012% (w/v) were
prepared with Ringer solution
T. vitulorum
0.012% (w/v)
decrease worm’s mobility, increase
mortality rate as well as elevate
MDA and NO content.
Oxidative/nitrosative levels also
elevated
[218]
Selenium NPs
20-150 nm
Streptomyces
spp. (M10A65)
Streptomyces spp. (M10A65) culture
mixed with 100 mL of ISP2 medium.
Inoculated flask incubated. Then,
actinobacterial biomass was separated
from the medium.
P. posthuma
[219]
NR
NR
FeO NPs
(SPIONs)
0.35 mmol iron acetylacetonate was
dissolved in 4.5 mL benzyl alcohol.
C. elegans
NR
Oxidative stress
[220]
Solid lipid
nanoparticles
(SLNs)
165± 103
nm
Albendazole
Double emulsion technique, where the
hot ethanolic extraction of beeswax was
done using the soxhlet apparatus at 78
oC, followed by drying till all ethanol gets
evaporated and then dissolving it in
chloroform (50mg/ml). Abz (100 mg/ml)
was then added with 2% aqueous
Poloxamer 407 (w/v).
H. contortus
20 µM
Reactive Oxygen Species stress
[221]
Curcumin loaded
NPs
NR
NR
Curcumin-loaded PLGA poly (lactic-co-
glycolic acid) nanospheres by the
nanoprecipitation technique
S. mansoni
[222]
50-100 µM
Reduction in egg count, increase in
liver granuloma volume and
collagen content, enhancement in
catalase activity, and restoration of
enzymatic activities of normal liver
cells.
[223,224]
NR
NR
NR
C. parvum
50 µM
[225]
NR
T. gondii
[226]
100 and 200 mg/kg/day
for seven days
I. multifiliis
[227]
NR
NR
A. galli
[228]
100 mg/ml
NR
A wide variety of nanocarriers have been investigated for anthelmintic drug delivery, including polymeric
nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, micelles, and liposomes (Table 4).
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) remains one of the most extensively studied biodegradable polymers
because of its excellent biocompatibility and controlled drug-release properties.
[229]
Encapsulation of
praziquantel within PLGA nanoparticles has been shown to improve drug stability and modify release kinetics.
In contrast, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have demonstrated enhanced oral bioavailability of poorly water-
soluble drugs.
[230]
Likewise, liposomal formulations improve drug encapsulation efficiency, prolong systemic
circulation, and promote targeted drug delivery, thereby increasing therapeutic efficacy while reducing
systemic toxicity.
[231]
In addition to functioning as drug carriers, several nanoparticles exhibit intrinsic
antiparasitic activity. Metallic nanoparticles, polymeric nanomaterials, and certain hybrid nanostructures have
been reported to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated oxidative stress, disrupt parasite membranes,
impair reproductive capacity, and cause genotoxic damage, ultimately leading to parasite death (Fig. 3). When
combined with conventional anthelmintic drugs, these nanomaterials often produce synergistic effects,
enabling lower therapeutic doses and improving treatment efficacy against resistant parasites. However, the
promising activity reported in experimental studies does not necessarily translate into effective in vivo therapy.
Metallic nanoparticles may exert strong antiparasitic effects via oxidative stress, membrane disruption, or
genotoxicity, but these mechanisms can also cause nonspecific toxicity in host tissues, thereby narrowing the
therapeutic window. Moreover, their biological activity is strongly influenced by particle size, surface
characteristics, dose, and aggregation state, meaning that effects observed at relatively high concentrations in
isolated parasites may not be reproducible following administration in vivo. The studies summarized in Table
4 also predominantly involve experimental models such as Caenorhabditis elegans, Pheretima posthuma, or
isolated parasite stages, which limits direct extrapolation to infected mammalian or livestock hosts. Polymeric
and lipid-based nanocarriers may provide greater opportunities for controlled drug delivery, but they also face
important barriers to in vivo translation. Although PLGA nanoparticles, SLNs, and chitosan-based systems can
improve drug solubility, stability, and release characteristics, their in vivo performance may be compromised
by protein corona formation, aggregation, uptake by the mononuclear phagocyte system, premature clearance,
and inadequate delivery to the parasite site. Thus, the promising activity of the PLGA-, SLN-, and chitosan-based
formulations summarized in Table 4 should be interpreted alongside the need for pharmacokinetic,
biodistribution, toxicity, and infected-host studies before therapeutic efficacy can be established.
Fig. 3: Graphical representation of Anthelmintic activity of various nanoparticles and their mode of action.
Despite these promising advances, several challenges continue to limit the clinical translation of nanomedicine.
Following administration, nanoparticles encounter numerous biological barriers that influence their
absorption, biodistribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). Interactions with plasma proteins lead to the
formation of a protein corona, which alters nanoparticle stability, circulation time, and tissue distribution. Most
nanoparticles are ultimately cleared by the mononuclear phagocyte system, particularly in the liver and spleen,
thereby limiting their accumulation at target sites.
[232,233]
Consequently, optimizing nanoparticle
physicochemical properties remains a major focus of current research. These ADME challenges are particularly
important for veterinary applications involving food-producing animals. Unlike conventional small-molecule
anthelmintics, nanoformulations may exhibit altered tissue distribution, prolonged retention, and formulation-
dependent drug release, which can influence the depletion of active compounds and nanoparticle-associated
components from edible tissues. Consequently, nanoparticles or their associated drug residues may potentially
persist in tissues such as muscle, liver, kidney, and fat and, in lactating animals, may also be transferred into
milk, raising concerns regarding consumer exposure. However, the extent of such accumulation and persistence
is highly dependent on nanoparticle composition, particle size, surface characteristics, route of administration,
dose, and the physicochemical properties of the encapsulated drug. Therefore, residue depletion cannot be
reliably extrapolated from conventional formulations of the same anthelmintic. Dedicated pharmacokinetic and
tissue-residue studies in relevant livestock species are required to characterize absorption, distribution,
transformation, and elimination and to determine the persistence of both the active pharmaceutical ingredient
and relevant nanoparticle-derived components. Such data are essential for establishing scientifically justified
maximum residue limits (MRLs) and appropriate withdrawal periods for meat, milk, and other edible products
before nano-anthelmintic formulations can be routinely used in food-producing animals. Regulatory evaluation
should therefore consider formulation-specific pharmacokinetic, residue-depletion, toxicological, and
consumer-safety data, particularly where repeated administration or prolonged tissue retention is anticipated.
The safety of nanomedicine also requires careful evaluation. Parameters such as biocompatibility,
biodegradability, pharmacokinetics, nanotoxicology, large-scale manufacturing, and regulatory compliance
must be thoroughly assessed before clinical application.
[234]
Certain metallic nanoparticles have been reported
to accumulate in the liver and other reticuloendothelial tissues, resulting in elevated liver enzyme levels and
tissue damage following prolonged exposure.
[235]
Furthermore, the toxicity of metallic nanoparticles often
depends on their composition, particle size, surface chemistry, and solubility, with highly soluble metal
nanoparticles generally exhibiting greater cytotoxicity in vitro.
[236]
Therefore, balancing therapeutic efficacy
with long-term safety remains a critical challenge for future nano-anthelmintic development. Overall,
nanotechnology provides a versatile platform for overcoming many of the limitations associated with
conventional anthelmintic therapy. Nanoformulations can enhance drug solubility, stability, bioavailability, and
targeted delivery while minimizing systemic exposure and adverse effects. By increasing drug accumulation at
parasite-infected tissues, including the gastrointestinal tract, liver, lungs, and skin, nanoparticle-based
formulations have the potential to improve treatment outcomes, reduce the emergence of resistance, and
revitalize the therapeutic efficacy of existing anthelmintic drugs.
[144]
Continued advances in nanocarrier design,
safety evaluation, and clinical translation are expected to establish nanomedicine as an important component
of future strategies for managing helminth infections.
2.5 Drug delivery via extracellular vesicles and lipid-based nanocarriers
Efficient drug delivery remains one of the major challenges in the treatment of helminth infections.
Conventional anthelmintic drugs often exhibit poor aqueous solubility, limited bioavailability, rapid systemic
clearance, and nonspecific tissue distribution, reducing their therapeutic efficacy. Consequently, considerable
attention has been directed toward vesicular drug delivery systems, including extracellular vesicles (EVs),
liposomes, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), which offer improved drug stability,
controlled release, targeted delivery, and reduced systemic toxicity. Extracellular vesicles are naturally
occurring nanosized membrane-bound particles released by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Helminths
also secrete EVs as components of their excretory/secretory products, thereby enabling them to communicate
with host cells and modulate immune responses by transferring proteins, lipids, messenger RNAs, and
microRNAs.
[237,238]
Beyond their biological role in host–parasite interactions, EVs have attracted considerable
interest as naturally derived drug-delivery vehicles owing to their excellent biocompatibility, low
immunogenicity, and inherent ability to transport bioactive molecules across biological barriers. These
characteristics make EVs promising candidates for therapeutic delivery, vaccine development, and diagnostic
applications in parasitic diseases. Among lipid-based nanocarriers, liposomes remain one of the most
extensively investigated drug delivery systems. Liposomes are biodegradable phospholipid bilayer vesicles
capable of encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic therapeutic agents, thereby protecting drugs from
enzymatic degradation and improving their pharmacokinetic properties.
[239,240]
Their structural similarity to
biological membranes facilitates cellular uptake and prolongs systemic circulation, while surface modification
with antibodies, peptides, or receptor-specific ligands enables targeted drug delivery to diseased tissues.
Consequently, liposomal formulations have been widely investigated for improving the efficacy and safety of
anticancer, antiviral, antibacterial, and antiparasitic therapies.
In helminth infections, liposomal drug delivery has shown considerable promise for enhancing the therapeutic
performance of existing anthelmintic agents. Encapsulation of praziquantel and ivermectin within liposomes
has been reported to improve drug delivery, prolong drug release, and increase deworming efficacy compared
with conventional formulations.
[237]
Interestingly, phospholipid-rich liposomes themselves may also exert
direct effects on parasites by altering the motility and morphology of Schistosoma mansoni. At the same time,
liposomal formulations have been reported to reduce the incidence of monensin resistance.
[241]
These findings
suggest that liposomes can function both as efficient drug carriers and as adjunctive therapeutic platforms.
Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) represent another important class of lipid-based nanocarriers. They combine
the advantages of polymeric nanoparticles and liposomes while offering improved physical stability,
biodegradability, ease of large-scale production, and sustained drug release. Because of their favorable safety
profile and high drug-loading capacity, SLNs have emerged as attractive carriers for poorly water-soluble
anthelmintic drugs, improving oral bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy. Recent advances have also
demonstrated the potential of biomimetic nanoparticle systems for targeted parasite control. Sharma et al.
(2021) developed lipid-based nanoparticles using compounds naturally consumed by helminths, achieving an
albendazole loading efficiency of 83.3 ± 6.5 mg/g and sustained drug release, with approximately 86% of the
encapsulated drug released within 24 h. Uptake of Rhodamine B-loaded nanoparticles by Haemanthus contortus
confirmed efficient particle ingestion and gradual dissemination throughout the parasite.
[221]
Notably,
nanoparticle encapsulation enhanced albendazole potency by nearly 50-fold, highlighting the considerable
potential of lipid-based nanocarriers to improve drug bioavailability, reduce therapeutic doses, and minimize
systemic toxicity.
[221]
Beyond nanoparticles, novel bioinspired drug delivery devices are also being explored. Theragrippers are
miniature self-actuating devices inspired by the attachment mechanisms of gastrointestinal parasites. Upon
exposure to physiological temperature, these microdevices anchor firmly to the intestinal mucosa and provide
sustained local drug release. In preclinical studies, theragrippers remained attached to the gastrointestinal tract
of rats for at least 24 hours, demonstrating their potential for prolonged intestinal drug delivery and improved
therapeutic retention.
[242]
Collectively, extracellular vesicles and lipid-based nanocarriers represent highly
promising platforms for next-generation anthelmintic therapy. Their ability to enhance drug stability, prolong
circulation, improve target-site accumulation, and reduce systemic toxicity offers significant advantages over
conventional formulations. Continued optimization of these delivery systems, together with comprehensive
evaluations of their safety, pharmacokinetics, and large-scale manufacturability, will be essential for their
successful translation into clinical and veterinary practice.
2.6 Challenges and future perspectives of nanoparticle-based approaches in helminthology
Despite the promising anthelmintic potential of nanoparticle-based approaches, several challenges must be
addressed before their translation into practical applications in human and veterinary helminthiasis. Most
available studies remain at the in vitro or preliminary experimental stage, with relatively limited validation in
infected animal models and clinical settings. Differences in nanoparticle size, morphology, surface charge,
composition, and preparation methods can substantially influence biological activity, cellular uptake,
biodistribution, and toxicity, making comparison between studies difficult. In addition, metallic nanoparticles
may induce nonspecific oxidative stress and tissue damage, raising concerns regarding their therapeutic
window and long-term safety. Polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers can improve drug solubility, stability,
and controlled release; however, protein-corona formation, aggregation, rapid clearance, and inadequate
delivery to parasite-associated sites may limit their effectiveness in vivo. These factors highlight the need for
standardized nanoparticle characterization and systematic evaluation of pharmacokinetics, biodistribution,
toxicity, and therapeutic efficacy in relevant host–parasite models. Future research should therefore focus on
the development of biodegradable and biocompatible nanocarriers capable of delivering anthelmintic agents
selectively to parasites while minimizing exposure to host tissues. Targeted and controlled-release systems may
improve drug accumulation at the site of infection and potentially reduce the dose and frequency of
administration. Nanocarriers could also facilitate combination therapy by co-delivering multiple anthelmintic
agents or integrating conventional drugs with bioactive compounds, which may be particularly valuable in
managing anthelmintic resistance. For veterinary applications, formulation-specific residue depletion studies
will be essential to establish appropriate withdrawal periods and ensure the safety of meat, milk, and other
edible products. Greater emphasis should also be placed on scalable manufacturing, batch-to-batch
reproducibility, cost-effectiveness, and regulatory requirements. Ultimately, integrating nanotechnology with
conventional anthelmintic therapy, resistance-management strategies, and One Health approaches could
support the development of safer, more effective, and sustainable interventions against helminth infections.
3. Discussion
Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising strategy to address many of the limitations associated with
conventional anthelmintic therapy. As highlighted throughout this review, nanoparticle-based drug delivery
systems can enhance the solubility, stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery of antiparasitic agents while
enabling sustained drug release and reducing systemic toxicity. These advantages have the potential to improve
therapeutic efficacy, lower required drug doses, and extend the clinical usefulness of existing anthelmintic
drugs, particularly in the face of increasing drug resistance. The rapid emergence of anthelmintic resistance has
become a major challenge in both human and veterinary medicine, threatening disease control programs,
livestock productivity, and global food security. Although nanoparticle-based formulations have shown
encouraging results in improving drug delivery and overcoming some pharmacokinetic limitations, their ability
to prevent or reverse established drug resistance remains incompletely understood. Future studies should
therefore focus not only on developing more effective nanoformulations but also on elucidating the molecular
mechanisms underlying parasite resistance and on identifying nanoparticle-based strategies to restore drug
susceptibility. Successful clinical translation of nanomedicine will require overcoming several scientific,
technical, and regulatory challenges. The design of multifunctional nanocarriers capable of achieving efficient
drug loading, prolonged circulation, controlled release, selective targeting, and minimal toxicity remains an
important research priority. In addition, standardized methods for evaluating nanoparticle pharmacokinetics,
biodistribution, biocompatibility, and long-term safety are needed to facilitate comparison among studies and
accelerate regulatory approval. The development of reliable diagnostic tools for the early detection and
surveillance of anthelmintic resistance will further strengthen integrated parasite management strategies and
support the rational use of existing therapeutics. Overall, the evidence summarized in this review demonstrates
that nanomedicine represents a promising complementary approach rather than a replacement for
conventional anthelmintic therapy. Continued interdisciplinary research integrating parasitology,
nanotechnology, materials science, pharmacology, and veterinary medicine will be essential for translating
these promising laboratory findings into safe, effective, and economically viable clinical and field applications.
Such advances have the potential to improve the management of helminth infections in both humans and
animals while contributing to sustainable parasite control and global health.
4. Conclusion
Helminth infections continue to pose a major challenge to global public health and livestock production,
particularly in regions with limited healthcare resources and inadequate sanitation. Although conventional
anthelmintic drugs have substantially reduced the burden of these infections, their long-term effectiveness is
increasingly threatened by poor bioavailability, limited therapeutic options, and the widespread emergence of
drug resistance. Consequently, there is an urgent need for innovative therapeutic strategies to improve
treatment efficacy and extend the lifespan of existing drugs. This review highlights the growing potential of
nanomedicine as an advanced platform for the management of helminth infections. Nanoparticle-based drug
delivery systems, including polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanocarriers, extracellular vesicles, and other
biomimetic delivery platforms, offer significant advantages by enhancing drug solubility, stability, controlled
release, targeted delivery, and therapeutic efficacy while minimizing systemic toxicity. In addition to improving
the performance of existing anthelmintic drugs, these technologies may provide new opportunities to overcome
pharmacokinetic limitations and help address the growing challenge of anthelmintic resistance. Despite these
promising advances, several barriers remain before nano-anthelmintic formulations can be widely
implemented in clinical and veterinary practice. Comprehensive evaluation of long-term safety,
pharmacokinetics, large-scale manufacturing, regulatory approval, and cost-effectiveness will be essential for
successful clinical translation. Continued interdisciplinary collaboration among parasitologists,
nanotechnologists, pharmacologists, veterinarians, and clinicians will accelerate the development of safe and
effective nanoformulations. Overall, nanomedicine represents a promising complement to conventional
anthelmintic therapy rather than a replacement for it. Continued research and technological innovation are
expected to facilitate the development of next-generation therapeutics that improve parasite control, mitigate
the impact of drug resistance, and enhance the health and productivity of both humans and animals.
Acknowledgement
None
CRediT Author Contribution Statement
Harmanjot Kaur: Conceptualization, Literature review, Analysis, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft,
Writing – Review and Editing. Lachhman Das Singla: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – Review and
Editing. Diptiman Choudhury: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – Review and Editing. All authors have
read and approved the final version of the manuscript for publication and agree to be accountable for all aspects
of the work, ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are
appropriately investigated and resolved.
Funding Declaration
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-
profit sectors.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Consent to Publish Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
No new datasets were generated or analyzed in this review. All information discussed in this manuscript is
derived from published literature cited within the article.
Conflict of Interest
Lachhman Das Singla serves as the Editor-in-Chief and is a co-author of this manuscript. To ensure a rigorous
and unbiased peer-review process, he was not involved in any stage start from editorial evaluation, peer review
process and final publication decision. The handling of this manuscript was managed independently by another
editorial board member. The other authors declare no competing interests.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Use Disclosure
The authors declare that artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted tools were used only for language refinement,
grammar improvement, and manuscript structuring purposes during the preparation of this work. All technical
content, experimental implementation, results, and interpretations were independently developed and verified
by the authors.
Supporting Information
Not applicable.
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